The first constitution to govern
what is now North Carolina, other than the original royal charter, was written
for hire by the political philosopher John Locke, who served as secretary to
the colony’s Lords Proprietors. These
rich Englishmen directed their draftsman to open with a statement of purpose:
“that we may avoid erecting a numerous democracy.” It was an ironic moment for the theorist of
natural freedom and self-government, who later founded a theory of human equality
based on the idea that people are “promiscuously born to all the same
advantages of nature.”
Locke’s Carolina constitution,
adopted in March 1669, for a region that included portions of today’s North and
South Carolina, may be the strangest fundamental law ever to govern a piece of
North America. It populated the new
colony with “signories,” “landgraves,” and “caciques,” and more familiar feudal
categories – baronies and manors – under the government of a Palatine and his
council of seven Lords Proprietors. It
sets out a hereditary aristocracy, with precise and unalterable proportions
between political authority and land ownership.
Ratios of acreage, office, and power interlock and turn back on
themselves like an Escher drawing.
Locke’s baroque scheme strikes the modern ear as more Dungeons &
Dragons than Constitutional Convention.
Indeed, no convention produced this
constitution, just a board meeting. In
the new colonies, political governance was corporate governance. Labor was to be done by a hereditary class of
serfs called leet-men, who lived under the direct governance of their landed
lords (who would administer law to the lower orders in “leet-courts”). Below them were “negro slaves,” property at
the whims of their owners. Neither
leet-men nor slaves were part of the body politic formed by Locke’s
constitution. His charter opened, “We,
the lords and proprietors … have agreed to this … form of government.” That is quite a contrast to “We the people,”
the phrase that famously opened the US Constitution in 1789. Most of the people in Locke’s Carolina were
not the People, but the help, or just the stuff. This constitution was intended to shut down
all future democracy “in the most binding ways that can be devised.”
I feel a macabre fascination with
John Locke’s constitution. And,
honestly, I find it funny. It is funny because it is so rococo, racialized
exploitation and political tyranny done up in ruffs and lace, a slave state
from the Eastern Lands of Game of Thrones.
Daenerys Targaryen would have liberated John Locke’s Carolina. Or maybe it’s not funny, but I wish it
were. I wish it were because I wish we
could laugh away the absurdities of race, wish that all undemocratic and
arbitrary power were as nakedly preposterous as what Locke proposed. But of course what he wrote didn’t seem at
all preposterous to him, or, more to the point, to “we the lords and
proprietors.” The world you have yet to
change usually seems obdurate and halfway natural, while the injustices of
faraway times and places feel fundamentally insubstantial: they should
disappear like the Wizard of Oz, with a tug of a curtain.
***
Locke’s phrases sometimes swam
through my head at Moral Mondays rallies in 2013 and 2014. There we were, still trying to erect a
numerous democracy. We were promiscuous
in our equality, the kind of proud motley Carolina that generations of white
supremacists have feared. But we were
also still unequal among ourselves, marked by lines of wealth and privilege,
and subject to laws that have made the state less democratic: Locke’s Lords Proprietors
would not have been entirely displeased by Thom Tillis’s North Carolina.
You don’t have to be, like me, a
constitutional lawyer and political theorist to think of constitutions at a
Forward Together rally. Constitutional
language is sacred text in the mouth of Reverend William Barber, head of North
Carolina’s NAACP and the visionary of Moral Mondays and the Forward Together
movement. As anyone who has even dropped
in on a rally know, Reverend Barber works with two canons: one religious, the
other civic. The Bible resonates
everywhere in his speeches. “Without
vision the people will perish,” he quotes from Proverbs, and you realize that
everything you have been hearing is in cadences and phrases that English
speakers are trained to vibrate to, whether we are churched or unchurched.
But it’s the civic canon that
really catches me. When Reverend Barber
raised the roof at 2014’s Netroots Nation, an annual gathering of progressive
activists, he opened with several minutes of provisions from North Carolina’s
Reconstruction constitution, written in 1868.
This later document established a principle of equal and universal
citizenship to the state for the first time.
It outlawed slavery forever in the state. Its drafters deliberately echoed the
Declaration of Independence, declaring it self-evident that all people are
created equal. They also added “the enjoyment
of the fruits of their own labor” to the people’s inalienable rights, a potent
statement of the anti-slavery principle.
The Reconstruction constitution took Thomas Jefferson’s words, the fine
phrases of a slaveholder, and applied them to everyone – restoring them to
their right meaning, or, if you prefer, dismantling the master’s house with the
master’s tools.
Constitutional language is living
tissue in Reverend Barber’s fierce, looping rhetoric. His speeches move in several dimensions at
once. They interpret the history of
Reconstruction, interracial fusion politics, and white reaction, bending time’s
arrow into a mythic loop, in which the present becomes the past, a second
Reconstruction arising in the Civil Rights movement and Barack Obama’s
election, a second Redemption (white supremacists’ favored term for their attack
on Reconstruction) in the Tea Party and North Carolina’s right-wing
legislature. The language mimics this
movement, phrases and images recurring and gathering force with each pass. These cycles of ever more forceful recitation
come to suggest an upward spiral, in the energy of the repeating words and the
historical promise of the echoing events, until both explode into prophecy—not
a promise of help from above but a call to act where you stand. In dark times, the speeches manage to say
that history is on your side, that language itself is on your side.
Barber would be the first to point
out that North Carolina’s Reconstruction constitution was written with the
ashes and blood of the Civil War still present to the minds of its
authors. Some of those authors were
freedmen, recently enslaved people like Abraham Galloway, one of the
Reconstruction constitution’s 15 black authors, who freed himself by escaping
to Canada in 1857, returning to North Carolina as a Union spy and abolitionist
tactician during the Civil War. It is in
part a peace treaty and document of surrender, abjuring secession forever and
thanking God for the preservation of the Union.
It is a victor’s document, but one written to enshrine the rights of
those its own canon – the Declaration and the US Constitution of 1789 –
ignored. Today it is the civic sacred
text of a movement of underdogs, the charter of a dream deferred.
Like the Christian Word, civic sacred
texts carry the memory of blood and wounds.
The idea of equal citizenship took on life and power among slaveholders,
and also among settlers who expelled and slaughtered Native Americans,
confident that both God and history were on their side. Equal citizenship for some came with excluding
others from citizenship altogether, either as enslaved laborers in the South or
as inconvenient savages on the frontier.
Yet the lived reality of political equality among the oppressors worked
the ideal ever deeper into American myth, imagination, and practice. This reality drenched the fine phrases of
equal citizenship in the blood of lynchings and massacres, associating them
indelibly with what we have learned to call white privilege. But these same phrases are also the civic
catechism of Reverend Barber’s peaceful, democratic, and entirely unfinished
revolution.
***
How can slaveholders’ words anchor
a language of prophecy and redemption?
(I am deliberately using redemption,
the word that white supremacists used for their attack on Reconstruction,
because it is also the right word for progressive constitutional
prophecy.) How does the record of
hypocrisy and violence call Moral Mondays marchers – as Reverend Barber put it
in his refrain at the mass rally of February, 2014 – to higher ground? What are we doing when we treat a
constitution as civic scripture?
A
constitution may do what its name suggests: constitute
– form, make up – not just a system of government but a people. A people, of course, is partly an imagined
thing, a way of thinking and seeing.
When you imagine that you are part of such a people, constitutional
language offers to tell you something about who you are. The Civil Rights movement of the 1960s used
such language to say, “As Americans, you are already committed to
equality. Now it is time to be true to
yourselves.” This is arguably strange or
alienating, reaching inside you to make you someone else, while claiming not to
change but to perfect you. Yet this is
also the language of transubstantiation, of redemption, of being born again into
the self you were meant to be, the self you always were, but secretly or
imperfectly.
This
redemptive attitude treats the glittering generalities of constitutional
language, and of the Declaration of Independence, as a Word yet to be made
Flesh.
But it is not just a matter of borrowing religion for
politics. Something is happening in
common between the two.
How do I, a secular marcher behind
Reverend Barber, hear the language of prophecy and redemption? There is a tradition in philosophy holding that
all religion is a kind of Word yet to be made Flesh: that its promises of
equality, dignity, and harmony express a worldly human possibility that has not
yet become real. If religion is a human
creation, this tradition says, then it must be explained by human wishes and
human capacities, not supernatural sources.
Seen this way, constitutional prophecy and redemption are not displaced
forms of religious passion. Instead,
both constitutional and religious prophecy express the human knowledge that we
contain more worlds than we have yet made and inhabited. They are ways of naming and imagining a world
we know we should make, a world we
want, which we have not yet found the way to create. It is a world of equality and inalienable
rights, where there is no slavery and the fruits of your labor are your own.
A
constitution, then, is a line of tension connecting the world that exists with
other worlds that might be possible, which we name to try to imagine them, and
imagine to try to bring them nearer—or at least to see more clearly the
distance between their ideals and the unredeemed present. We use words to form this line of tension,
to name the distance between worlds, if not exactly to measure it.
To my mind, this is true and powerful. But there is a danger in redemptive
imagination that is part of its power: it gathers all history into covenant,
all injustice into reminders of a promise betrayed. It can obscure the waste, suffering, and
horror of past and present, so that its gloss becomes the highest truth about
moments of felt possibility, but also quite inadequate, even false, to the
lives where we spend most of our time.
Each of these Carolina constitutions
is threefold. Each is a record of its
time’s violence and exclusion: a record of a bloody social settlement, an
imposed peace in a long struggle. Each
is also an occlusion, a cloak over violence, and so a record of hypocrisy. From the open neo-feudalism and slavery of
Locke’s constitution through the freemen’s constitution of 1776 and the nominal
universalism of 1868 – which proved to be a hospitable framework for Jim Crow –
the balance shifts from an open record of violence to a subtler and more tragic
record of hypocrisy. It is partly here,
in the gap such hypocrisy produces between words and reality, that the third
aspect of these constitutions, the prophetic possibility, emerges.
***
Locke’s constitution didn’t last
long. By 1700, it had mostly faded from
relevance. That said, Locke’s
constitution was widely printed and circulated in the colony for three decades,
and was fundamental law in those strange and turbulent decades (which spanned a
restoration and revolution in the home country). Later Carolina constitutions
are comfortingly familiar. The phrase
“We the people” would not open a North Carolina constitution until
Reconstruction, but already in 1776, the newly independent North Carolinians
declared in their state constitution that “all political power is vested in and
derived from the people only.” This constitution is studded with
personal rights and protections against abuse of power. The trick is that these apply only to
“freemen.” It is a freeman’s
constitution, meaning, mostly, a white man’s covenant. A form of democracy had come, but those who
were left out of it now did not even merit a mention, unlike the leetmen and
slaves that Locke’s constitution had called out by name. Only silence marked their exclusion in 1776,
the unspoken implication that “freemen” had an opposite.
Such early state constitutions
formed the template for the Supreme Court’s notorious 1858 decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which just
before the Civil War declared that the US Constitution should be read to mean
“we the white people,” the Declaration of Independence to declare “all white
men are created equal,” and that white supremacy was the implicit, permanent
commitment of American nationhood. This,
of course, is what Reverend Barber’s beloved 1868 constitution was written to
destroy. And even this egalitarian
vision lasted only thirty years. Then the violent reassertion of white
supremacy was constitutionalized in new amendments that created literacy tests
for all voters except those who had been eligible to vote in 1867—that is, the
white people who had been “freemen” under the old, slavery constitution. Those amendments brought a poll tax as
well. This was the constitution of Jim
Crow and separate but equal, which only the Civil Rights Movement, the Second
Reconstruction, would displace.
***
Locke’s colonial constitution –
there, it still holds me! – holds that any ambergris found on the Carolina
coast belongs to the Lords Proprietors of the colony. Ambergris, for those who don’t recall, is a
potent gray mass produced in the digestive tracts of sperm whales. Before the magic of chemistry, it was a major
raw material for perfume. A rare
ingredient for a luxury good, it was prized and costly.
This is a
telling little irony. When Locke
described the origins of property in his most influential work, the Second Treatise of Government, he
offered ambergris as proof that the world primordially belonged to everybody
and nobody, but a person could make a part of it his own by taking hold of
it. Isn’t it true, he wrote, that a
walker who finds ambergris on the beach becomes its owner, and demonstrates
this ancient, basic human power to make nature into property? Well, not so much in Carolina.
This small
betrayal of Locke’s celebrated principles may stand for many larger
betrayals. Locke was a theorist of human
equality, which nature had spread “promiscuously” throughout the species. He argued that anyone who tried to get you in
his absolute power had, in effect, declared war on you, and that you could kill
him in self-defense. Unless, apparently,
you were a “negro slave” in Carolina and he your master. In that case, his absolute power over you was
part of the constitution, which has no more room for promiscuous equality than
for a numerous democracy.
***
These kinds
of inconsistencies capture my imagination partly because, as a constitutional
lawyer, I belong to a strange subculture whose members sometimes imagine
principles as Archimedean points: if we could just find their true meaning, we
could shift the world. We are trained to
go after inconsistencies the way acupuncturists go after blocked meridians. In that sense, we are technicians of
constitutional prophecy, trying to bridge the pregnant gaps between words and
the world.
But this is
not just technical, professional craft;. here again, the redemptive idea makes itself
felt. If only we could overcome these
betrayals and errors, it suggests, we could make things right, as they were
always meant to be. This is the implicit
idea of the whole tradition of civic preaching that Reverend Barber echoes, and
which goes back to Abraham Lincoln and the abolitionists, and runs through
Martin Luther King, Lyndon Baines Johnson, and others who portrayed the first
Emancipation and the second Reconstruction as redeeming the country’s original
promise. This is an American story with
a Christian template: original sin destroys what should be perfect harmony;
only a sacrifice of blood, faith, and patience can redeem it and restore the
primal design. Those who like to say
this is a Christian country may not realize exactly how right they are. They should be answered: yes, conceived in
sin and redeemed in blood.
But even
the story of redemption makes it all too neat.
Powerful as it has been as a tool of emancipation, it misses something
else, something the Declaration of Independence and the Reconstruction
constitution conceal, but Locke’s constitution lays bare. The settlements that became the United States
did not begin as an imperfect democracy, struggling to work itself pure. They began as a project of settler
colonialism, building a new world of economic opportunity for free settlers and
the investors at home – the Lords Proprietors of the Carolina Colony. The American Revolution took the home investors
out of the picture and consolidated self-government for free settlers – but
still on the backs of enslaved people and the lands of expelled peoples. The exclusion and oppressions of American
history began not as original sin but as what conservative constitutional
theorists call original meaning. Steps
toward equality and genuine democracy have not have been corrections to a
founding mistake, but revolutionary reallocations of power and privilege. They radicalized the idea of citizenship that
white male settlers claimed for themselves with their revolution; but in
radicalizing it, they transformed it, because exclusion and oppression were
built into it from the start and by design – albeit over the objections of genuine
democrats like the immigrant Thomas Paine and the free black radical David
Walker.
What does
this mean? Well, for one, that an
adequate Reconstruction needs to be just that – a deep engagement with the
roots of continuing inequality in inherited wealth, economic structure, between
races, and in institutions such as schools and the criminal justice system. We are fooling ourselves if we believe the
key is already hidden in our old principles, if we could just get them right –
no matter how potent and attractive this idea is, no matter how much partial
good we can manage with it. The problem
is not just to perfect a flawed democracy, but to decolonize national
life. The constitution that would do
that has not been written yet.
